Spiritual Formation Practices in

Spiritual Formation Practices in the Early Church to the Reformed Tradition Period

Studies in early Christian faith communities have shown that formation practices were based on the Christian narratives which were used to form or shape the faith of these communities. These formation practices were often sensitive to the culture of their place and time (Engen 2004, 21-25).

From the first to the second centuries, new Christian converts were instructed using writings from the Didache, Justin Martyr and Irenaeus. At the end of the second century, teachings of new Christians were formalised by the founding of the Catechetical School at Alexandria. Here new converts were taught the basics of the Christian faith together with non-Christian learning. Two prominent teachers were Origen and Clement (Habermas 2001, 112)

It was in the early part of the third century that a fully organised plan of catechism was developed. A rigorous three year period were mandated before the adult convert were baptised. These 3 years period were to allow time for the new adult convert to change their lifestyle to one more fitting as a Christian. This period is called the catechumenate. This was necessary as most new converts were adults, converting from paganism.

From the fourth to the sixth century, infant baptisms became more common and the number of adults seeking catechumenate began to decrease. The emphasis and content of the catechism were slowly changed as more non-Christian disciplines were taught. The content of the catechism were the Lord’s Prayer and the Apostles’ Creed. The Ten Commandments were added by the thirteenth century (Habermas 2001, 112). However with the decrease in the number of adult seeking catechumenate, the catechism instructions deteriorated and the instructions were often given after baptism.

The catechism was the ancient church’s way of corporate spiritual formation. The Lord’s Prayer, the Apostles’ Creed and the Ten Commandments were recited in daily mass and in weekly Sunday services. It is part of the church liturgical worship. Members of the congregations were expected to memorise and be able to recite them.

“When we recite the creed, we are doing more than telling ourselves what we believe; we are engaged in what in speech-act theory is called a performative act. We are making a pledge of self-giving to the God we believe in. In the practice of recitation, the creed functions like a nation’s national anthem or pledge.” (2005, 4).

The creed served the purpose of reminding the members of their basic beliefs, the Ten Commandments remind them to check themselves for their sins, and the prayer is the church’s prayer to God. Hence the incorporate of the catechism into the church worship liturgy serves a very important spiritual formation function. It reminds them they are a “separated” people, and reinforce their identity as a “separated” people.[1] Therefore the liturgy itself was an important in the corporate spiritual formation process.

The early church fathers taught that conversion was a process. One was slowly released from the bondage of the world. In that time period, Christian religious beliefs were incorporated into daily life. The catechumen was slowly helped by the church and her members to study and memorise the catechism, to live a life of holiness, to confess their sins and to serve others. This was a community effort. They would be horrified to learn of our conversion techniques and a quick prayer “accepting Christ into our heart.”

“The ancient catechumenal process corresponds more closely to the idea of continuing conversion. It is a process of becoming in which the initial response is tested out, clarified, and strengthened. Just as true love between a man and a woman culminates in marriage, the catechumenal process culminates in baptism, when one renounces he world, vows lifelong commitment to follow Christ and enters into full communion with the church.”(2006, 124-125).

Conversion was a process that started with intention. That is why it takes at least 3 years before baptism was offered and performed. The spiritual formation process through the catechism did not end with baptism but continued through it to the rest of their lives. Again the early church understood baptism as early Judaism regarded Bar Mitzvah.

The monastic movement helped to keep in continuity, some of the educational and instructional structure of the catechism. The Monastic consist of three different groups; those who were hermits and lived alone; those who live in communes under a monastic rule, and those who lived in communities under a spiritual director. It is those who lived in communes and communities that practice a form of community spiritual formation. Their purpose was to detach from worldly affairs and devote themselves to prayers and study. Spiritual disciplines like lectio divina, the Jesus prayer and contemplative prayers were developed during this time.

The decline of the monastic period saw the blooming of the mendicants. These were monks who vowed to live a life of poverty and to serve God. They were organised under various orders named after their founders, for example, the Franciscan (Francis of Assisi) and Dominicans (Dominic). The Dominicans were especially noteworthy because their call was to study, to preach and teach the gospel. Thomas Aquinas and Meister Eckhart were Dominicans. They continued the instructing of the catechism. However, the socio-political situation had changed. Though the Church is still rich and powerful, it has lost its influence over the general populace which succumbed to superstitions and a fearful Christian religiosity. In time, it led to the Reformation.

One of the reforms done during the Reformation was to review the catechism. Martin Luther wrote his Large Catechism (April, 1529) and his Smaller Catechism, a month later. In these, Luther restructured the traditional instruction contents into three components. First was the “Code” of Christian beliefs, second was the “Creed” of the central message of Christ and lastly, the “Cult” which were instructions on how to appropriate Christ’s redemption through prayers and sacraments.

John Calvin wrote the Catechism of the Church at Geneva (English) in 1542. This work was in the form of a 129 questions and answers format. This made it easier for the students to understand and remember. In 1563, the Heidelberg Catechism was written and it incorporated the 129 questions and answers. It contains segments on human misery, human redemption and divine redemption[2]. Therefore there is the cognitive aspect of the catechism which involved learning the answers and also behavioural modification necessary to live in a “Christian community”.

Weaver placed the reformed/Presbyterian worship service between the “prayer-book liturgical tradition” groups of churches, where liturgy was strictly followed, and the “free-church tradition”, where there were no prescribed liturgical rules[3] (Weaver 2002, 30). The reformed worship incorporates the spiritual formation processes found in the early catechism in liturgy worship services. These processes includes the focus on the praise and adoration of God, the participation of worshippers in worship rather than as spectators, a Word-centered liturgy, emphasis on preaching as a means of grace and the presence of order, dignity and grace (Weaver 2002, 33-34). The Lord’s Table, baptism and confirmations are also important aspect of the reformed worship. Therefore corporate spiritual formation takes place as people are reminded weekly of the creed, prayer and rules governing the Christian faith.

The catechumenate is an important spiritual formation tool that the Asian church should be encouraged to reconsider. First, conversion is the moving from one world to another. In the Asian context, it may mean detaching and breaking away from cultural and social roots. The relationship of a new convert with their non-Christian parents, siblings, relatives and friends may never be the same again. There is also the need to relearn cultural norms that is acceptable to Christianity. In some new converts, exorcism may need to be done. In others, the new converts may need to break the bonds with the temples. For example, some of them may be given as godchildren to the goddess Kwan Yin. These bonds need to be broken.

Second, the whole church is involved in forming the new convert’s lifestyle and religious instructions. Relationships need to be build and maintained. Prayers need to be offered for each other. New converts need to show how to use the means of grace to grow in their faith.

Finally, an adequate contextualised course of instruction must to be given. A good course is the Heidelberg Catechism. It is comprehensive in that it deals with the Christian creed and sacraments. Simon Chan asked some interesting questions

“How do we teach the Trinity vis-avis the world religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam?…How does the Christian doctrine of the Spirit relate to the traditional Asian animistic instinct?... What do we make of the hierarchical structure of the Asian family?...How does Christian prayer differ from the idea prevailing in popular religions that it is an “exchange” between a person and the deity?” (2006, 116-117)

[1] The whole idea is to reinforce the idea that baptized Christians are separated from the world, the flesh and the devil. The Augustinian image of moving from the City of Man to the City of God is helpful here. Augustine, S. (1993). The City of God. New York, The Modern Library.p.345-379. Being baptism is more significant then than is nowadays.

[2] “The Heidelberg Catechism of the Reformed Churches of the Palatinate (1563) began with the doctrine of sin and human misery (Qs1-11) followed by the doctrines of redemption and salvation by faith (Qs 12-21). The content of faith is specified in question 22:”What is it, then, for a Christian to believe?” Answer “All that is promised us in the Gospel, which the articles of our catholic, undoubted Christian faith teach us to sum.” The articles of faith are summed up in the Apostles’ Creed (Qs 23-85). Questions 59-64 discuss the appropriation of Christ by faith, with question 64 making the transition from creed to sacrament” Chan, S. (2006). Liturgical Theology: The Church as Worshiping Community. Downers Grove, Illinois, InterVarsity Press.p.108

[3] Weaver mentions three major liturgical streams. The prayer-book stream includes the Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican and Lutheran has a liturgy format for all their churches. All their churches are required to follow the given format. At the other end is the free-church stream, which does not have a fixed liturgy or rules for governing the context and conduct of worship. Weaver mentioned the Presbyterians as being in between without mentioning the name of the stream. Weaver, J. D. (2002). Presbyterian Worship: A Guide for Clergy. Lousiville, KN, Geneva Press.p.30

Andersen, W., D. Cohen, et al. (2003). "Theology of Childhood: a Theological Resource Framed to Guide the Practice of Evangelising and Nurturing Children." Journal of Christian Education 46(3 Dec): 5-31.

Anderson, K. R. and R. D. Reese (1999). Spiritual Mentoring: A Guide for Seeking and Giving Direction. Downers Grove, IL, InterVarsity Press.

Ashbrook, R. T. (2003). Mansions of the Heart: A Spiritual Formation Paradigm for the Church based on Teresa of Avila's Seven Mansions, George Fox Evangelical Seminary. D.Min: 155 pages.

Banks, R. (1980). Going to Church in the First Century. Jacksonville, FL, Christian Books Publishing.

Barton, R. H. (2004). Invitation to Solitude and Silence: Experiencing God's Transforming Presence. Downers Grove, IL., InterVarsity Press.

Barton, R. H. (2006). Sacred Rhythms: Arranging Our Lives for Spiritual Transformation. Downers Grove, InterVarsity Press.

Bass, D. and D. C. Richter, Eds. (2002). Way to Live: Christian Practices for Teens. Nashville, TN, Upper Room Books.

Bass, D. C., Ed. (1997). Practicing Our Faith: A Way of Life for a Searching People. The Practices of Faith Series. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.

Benner, D. G. (2002). Sacred Companions: the gift of spiritual friendship and direction. Downers Grove, IL, InterVarsity Press.

_____, (2003). Surrender to God: Discovering the Heart of Christian Spirituality. Downers Grove, IL., InterVarsity Press.

_____, (2004). The Gift of Being Yourself: The Sacred Call to Self-Discovery. Downers Grove, IL, NavPress.

_____, (2005). Desiring God's Will: Aligning Our Hearts with the Heart of God. Downers Grove, IL, NavPress.

Biehl, B. (1996). Mentoring: Confidence in Finding a Mentor and Becoming One. Nashville, TN, Broadman& Holman Publishers.

Blevins, D. G. (2005). "Renovating Christian Education in the 21st Century: A Wesleyan Contribution." Christian Education Journal: Series 3 2(1): 6-29.

Boa, K. (2001). Conformed to His Image: Biblical and Practical Approaches to Spiritual Formation. Grand Rapids, MI, Zondervan.

Bright, W. R., Ed. (1965). Teacher's Manual for Ten Basic Steps Toward Christian Maturity. San Bernardino, CA, Campus Crusade for Christ, International.

Bruce, A. B. (1988). The Training of the Twelve: Timeless Principles for Leadership Development. Grand Rapids, MI, Kregel Publications.

Brueggemann, W. (2005). Worship in Ancient Israel: An Essential Guide. Nashville, TN, Abingdon Press.

Bumpus, M. R. and R. B. Langer, Eds. (2005). Supervision of Spiritual Directors: Engaging in Holy Mystery. Harrisburgh, Morehouse.

Chan, S. (2005). "Rediscovering the Catechumenate." Church & Society 8(1): 1-24.

_____, (2006). Liturgical Theology: The Church as Worshiping Community. Downers Grove, Illinois, InterVarsity Press.

Chardin, T. d. (1960). The Divine Milieu. London, William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd.

Chittister, J. (1990). Wisdom Distilled from the Daily: Living the Rule of St.Benedict Today. New York, HarperaCollins Publishing Company.

_____, (1992). The Rule of Benedict: Insights for the Ages. New York, The Crossroad Publishing Company.

Coleman, R. E. (1998). The Master Plan of Discipleship. Grand Rapids, MI, Fleming H. Revell.

Coles, R. (1990). The Spiritual Life of Children. Boston, Houghton Miffin Company.

Dawn, M. (1989). Keeping the Sabbath Wholly: Ceasing, Resting; Embracing; Feasting. Grand Rapids, MI., William B.Eerdmans Publishing Company.

Dunn, J. D. G. (1998). The Theology of Paul the Apostle. Grand Rapids, MI, William B.Eerdmans Publishing Company.

Dykstra, C. (1987). "The Formative Power of the Congregation." Religious Education 82(4 Fall): 530-546.

_____,(2005). Growing in the Life of Faith: Education and Christian Practices. Louisville, KN, Westminster John Knox Press.

Edersheim, A. (1994). Sketches of Jewish Social Life. Peabody, Henderickson Publishers.

_____,(1981). Disciples in Action: A Study of the Apostles' Ministry from Acts. Colorado Springs, CO, NavPress.

Engen, J. V., Ed. (2004). Educating People of Faith: Exploring the History of Jewish and Christian Communities. Grand Rapids, MI, William B. Eerdmans publishing Company.

Erickson, M. J. (2000). Making Sense of the Trinity. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Books.

Fackre, G. (1996). The Christian Story: A Narrative Interpretation of Basic Christian Doctrine. Grand Rapids. MI, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.

Foster, R. (1989). Celebration of Discipline: The Path To Spiritual Growth. London, Hodder & Stoughton.

_____,(2006). May 2006: A Pastoral Letter from Richard Foster. Heart-to-Heart, Renovare: 1-6.

Foster, R. J., Ed. (2005). The Renovare Spiritual Formation Bible. San Francisco, HarperSanFranscisco.

Fowler, J. (2000). Becoming Adult, Becoming Christian: Adult Development and Christian Faith. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.

Fowler, J. W. (1995). Stages of Faith: The Psychology of Human Development and the Quest for Meaning. New York, HarperCollins.

Ganss, G. E., Ed. (1991). Ignatious of Loyola: The Spiritual Exercises and Selected Works. The Classics of Western Spirituality. Mahwah, NJ, Oualist Press.

Gibbs, B. (2005). Emerging Churches: Creating Christian Community in Postmodern Cultures. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Academic.

Goldsworthy, A. (2003). In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire. London, Phoenix.

Gorman, R. T. O. (2001). "Effect of Theological Orientation on Christian Education in Spiritual Formation: Towards a Post Modern Model of Spirituality." Review and Expositor 98(Summer): 351-360.

Habermas, R. T. (2001). Catechism. Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Education. M. J. Anthony. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Academic: 111-113.

Hagberg, J. O. and R. A. Guelich (2005). The Critical Journey: Stages in the Life of Faith. Salem, Sheffiled Publishing Company.

Harris, M. (1989). Fashion Me A People: Curriculum in the Church. Louisville, Westminster/John Knox Press.

Hauerwas, S. and L. G. Jones, Eds. (1997). Why Narrative? Readings in Narrative Theology. Eugene, OR, Wipf and Stock Publisher.

Hendricksen, W. A. (1979). Disciples Are Made-Not Born. Wheaton, IL, Victor Books.

Hill, B. (1990). That They May Learn: Towards a Christian View of Education. Flemington Markets, NSW, Lancer Books.

Horne, H. and A. M. Gunn (1998). Jesus the Teacher: Examining His Expertise in Education (Jesus the Master Teacher & Teaching Techniques of Jesus: How Jesus Taught). Grand Rapids, MI, Kregel Publications.

Houston, J. (2002). The Mentored Life: From Individualism to Personhood. Colorado Springs, CO., NavPress.

Howard, P. (2006). "A Psychospiritual Model of Spiritual Formation: A Review of David Benner's Contribution." Christian Education Journal Series 3, 3(2): 230-239.

Johnson, S. (1989). Christian Spiritual Formation in the Church and Classroom. Nashville, TN, Abingdon Press.

_____,(2001). "Christian Spiritual Formation in an age of "whatever"." Review and Expositor 93(3 Summer): 309-332.

Jordan, D. (2004). "Faith Formation in Brethren Youth: Interviews with Church of the Brethren Adults concerning the Formation of their Faith in their Adolescent Years." Brethen Life and Thought 37(1): 25-46.

Kang, S. S. (2004). The Formation Process in a Learning Community. A Many Colored Kingdom: Multicultural Dynamics for Spiritual Formation. E. Conde-Frazier, S. S. Kang and G. A. Parrett. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Academic: 151-166.

Kerka, S. (1995). "The Learning Organization: Myth or Reality?" Retrieved 2006/02/25, from http://www.cete.org/acve/docgen.asp?tbl=archive&ID=A028.

Kimball, D. (2003). The Emerging Church: Vintage Christianity for New Generations. Grand Rapids, MI, Zondervan.

Kline, P. and B. Saunders (1993). Ten Steps to a Learning Organization. Salt Lake City, Great River Books.

Kouzes, J. M. and B. Z. Posner, Eds. (2004). Christian Reflections on The Leadership Challenge. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.

Kuhne, G. W. (1976). The Dynamics of Personal Follow-Up. Grand Rapids, MI, Zondervan.

Ladd, G. E. (1984). Kingdom of Christ, God, Heaven. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. W. A. Elwell. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Books: 607-611.

Lawrence (1982). The Practice of the Presence of God. New Kensington, PA, Whitaker House.

Leech, K. (2001). Soul Friend: Spiritual Direction in the Modern World. Harrisburg, PA, Morehouse Publishing.

Lloyd-Jones, D. M. (1976). The Christian Warfare: An Exposition of Ephesians 6:10-13. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Books.

Mallison, J. (1998). Mentoring: To Develop Disciples and Leaders. Adelaide, SA., Openbook Publisher.

May, G. G. (1992). Care of Mind: A Psychiatrist Explores Spiritual Direction. New York, HarperCollins Publishers.

McGinn, B. (2001). The Mystical Thought of Meister Eckhart: The Man from Whom God Hid Nothing. New York, The Crossraod Publishing Company.

McGrath, A. (1995). Beyond the Quiet Time: Practical Evangelical Spirituality. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Books.

McLaren, B. D. (2001). A New Kind of Christian: A Tale of Two friends on a Spiritual Journey. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.

_____,(2005, 7 Feb 2007). "Spiritual Formation in a Postmodern Context." A New Kind of Conversation Retrieved 7/2/07, from http://www.anewkindofconversation/default.cfm?EK=57DE7COD-B0D0=78C0=1FB1E53E7AOD8OB1.

Meeks, W. A. (1983). The First Urban Christians: The Local World of the Apostle Paul. New Haven, Yale University Press.

Moon, G. W. and D. G. Benner, Eds. (2004). Spiritual Direction and the Care of Souls: A Guide to Christian Approaches and Practices. Downers Groove, InterVarsity Press.

Mulholland Jr, M. R. (1993). Invitation to a Journey: A Road Map for Spiritual Formation. Downers Grove, IL., InterVarsity Press.

_____,(2006). The Deeper Journey: The Spirituality of Discovering Your True Self. Downers Grove, IL, InterVarsity Press.

Olson, R. and C. Hall (2002). The Trinity. Grand Rapids, MI, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.

OM (1968). Discipleship Manual: Operation Mobilisation. Bombay, P.A.C. Printers.

Osmer, R. R. (1992) "Restructuring Confirmation." Theology Today Volume, DOI:

_____,(2005). The Teaching Ministry of Congregations. Louisville, KN, Westminster John Knox Press.

Pagitt, D. and t. S. s. P. Community (2003). Reimagining Spiritual Formation: A Week in the Life of an Experimental Church. Grand Rapids, MI, Zondervan.

Pazmino, R. W. (1997). Foundational Issues in Christian Education. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Books.

Peace, R. V. (2004). "CEJ Book Symposium: Book Review of Willard, Dallas. (2002). Renovation of the heart: Putting on the character of Christ. Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress." Christian Education Journal Series 3, 1(3): 164-170.

Pennington, M. B. (1980). Centering Prayer: Renewing an Ancient Christian Prayer Form. New York, Doubleday.

_____,(2000). True Self, False Self : Unmasking the Spirit Within. New York, The Crossroad Publishing Company.

Peterson, E. H. (2006). Eat This Book: a conversation in the art of spiritual reading. Grand Rapids, MI, William B.Eerdmans Publishing Company.

Ridderbos, H. (1966). Paul: An Outline of His Theology. Grand Rapids, MI, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.

Rohr, R. and J. Feister (2001). Hope Against Darkness: The Transforming Vision of Saint Francis in an Age of Anxiety. Cincinnati, St. Anthony Messenger Press.

Schreiner, T. R. (2001). Paul: Apostle of God's Glory in Christ. Downers Grove, IL, InterVarsity Press.

Seamands, S. (2005). Ministry in the Image of God: The Trinitarian Shape of Christian Service. Downers Groove, IL, InterVarsity Press.

Senge, P., N. Cambron-McCabe, et al. (2000). Schools That learn: A Fifth Discipline Fieldbook for Educators, parents and everyone who cares about education. New York, Doubleday.

Senge, P., R. Ross, et al. (1994). The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook. New York, Doubleday.

Senge, P. M. (1990). The Fifth Discipline: The Art & Practice of the Learning Organization. New York, Doubleday.

Sheldrake, P., Ed. (2005). The New Westminster Dictionary of Christian Spirituality. Louisville, KN, John Knox Press.

Shults, F. L. and S. J. Sandage (2006). Transforming Spirituality: Integrating Theology and Psychology. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Academic.

Sickles, J. (2004). "CEJ Book Symposium: Willard, Dallas. (2002). Renovation of the heart: Putting on the character of Christ. Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress." Christian Education Journal Series 3, 1(3): 176-181.

Sine, T. (1999). Mustard Seed versus McWorld: Reinventing Life and Faith for the Future. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Books.

Smith, M. K. (2005, 2005/1/30). "Peter Senge and the Learning Organisation." Retrieved 02/13, 2006, from http://www.infed.org/thinkers/senge.htm.

Spiro, J. (1987). "Formative Process in Jewish Tradition." Religious Education 82(4 Fall).

Stein, R. H. (1994). The Method and Message of Jesus' Teachings. Louisville, John Knox Press.

_____,(1996). Kingdom of God. Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology. W. A. Elwell. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Books.

Stevens, R. P. (1999). The Other Six Days: Vocation, Work and Ministry in Biblical Perspective. Grand Rapids, MI., William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.

Sweet, L. (1999). SoulTsunami: Sink or Swim in New Millenium Culture. Grand Rapids, MI, Zondervan Publishing House.

Sweet, L., Ed. (2003). The Church in Emerging Culture: Five Perspectives. Grand Rapids, MI, Zondervan.

Thomas, G. (1996). Sacred Pathways. Grand Rapids, MI, Zondervan Publishing House.

Wagner, N., Ed. (2006). Spiritual Direction in Context. Harrisburgh, PA, Morehouse Publishing.

Walters, A. S. (2002). We Believe in One God? Reflections on the Trinity in the Malaysian Context. New Delhi, ISPCK.

Warren, M. (1987). "Religious Formation in the Context of Social Formation." Religious Education 82(4 Fall): 515-528.

Weaver, J. D. (2002). Presbyterian Worship: A Guide for Clergy. Lousiville, KN, Geneva Press.

Webber, R. (1999). Ancient-Future Faith: Rethinking Evangelicalism for a Postmodern World. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Books.

_____,(2002). The Younger Evangelicals: Facing the Challenges of the New World. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Books.

_____,(2003). Ancient-Future Evangelism: Making Your Church a Faith-Forming Community. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Books.

_____,(2004). Ancient-Future Time: Forming Spirituality through the Christian Year. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Books.

_____,(2006). The Divine Embrace: Recovering the Passionate Spiritual Life. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Books.

Westerhoff, J. (1987). "Formation, Education, Instruction." Religious Education 82 Fall(4): 578-591.

_____,(2000). Will Our Children Have Faith? Harrisburg, PA, Morehouse Publishing.

Wilkins, M. J. (1996). Disciple, Discipleship. Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology. W. A. Elwell. Grand Rapids, MI, Baker Books: 175-177.

_____,(1997). In His Image: Reflecting Christ in Everyday Life. Colorado Springs, CO., NavPress.

Willard, D. (1988). The Spirit of the Disciplines: Understanding How God Changes Lives. New York, HarperCollins Publisher.

_____,(1999). Hearing God: Developing a Conversational Relationship with God. Downers Grove, IL., InterVarsity Press.

Willard, D. (2002). Renovation of the Heart: Putting on the Character of Christ. Colorado Springs, CO., NavPress.

Wintle, B. and K. Gnanakan (2006). Ephesians. Singapore, Asia Theological Association.

WitheringtonIII, B. (1998). The Paul Quest: The Renewed Search for the Jew of Tarsus. Downers Grove, IL, InterVarsity Press.

Yeo, A., Ed. (2006). Labyrinth of Therapeutic Encounters: Collected Essays on Counselling and Psychotherapy. Singapore, Armour Publishers.

Zuck, R. B. (1995). Teaching as Jesus Taught. Eugene, OR, Wipf and Stock Publishers.