Alex Tang
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Medical Students /Paediatric notes
Cloning Human Beings
by Dr Alex Tang
Star
Wars Episode II: Attacks of the Clones hit the cinemas in July 2002 and became
one the much watched and talked-about movies in 2002. In the story, Count
Doulos commissioned a secret army of clones for the Republic. The clones were
made from genetic materials of Jango Fett, a bounty hunter noted for his aggressiveness and
ruthlessness. As followers of the Star Wars saga will know, these clones became
the storm troopers of the Empire. What is interesting that arises from this
movie and the discussions that surround it is that nobody raised an eyebrows about the making of the clones. Even though it
is a science fiction movie, people has come to accept clones and cloning as an
acceptable facts of life.
Aldous Huxley, in his book Brave New World introduced an utopian world where the people are clones. But the idea of clones reach further back in our historical
heritage. Dr. Matapurkar, a surgeon told The Times of India, that he believed
cloned people walked the streets of
Fundamentals
of Cloning
The word ‘clone’ is derived form
the Greek word, klon,
meaning ‘twig’, ‘slip’ or ‘cutting’. The online Webster dictionary defined
clone as ‘an individual grown from a single somatic cell of its parent and
genetically identical to it’. To clone is to reproduce by
asexual means with the end product being an individual or individuals that is
derived from a single parent and is genetically identical to that parent. In
nature, many lower organisms reproduce by cloning (asexual reproduction), for
example amoeba and frogs. In higher organisms, the development of monozygotic,
identical twins, triplets or quadriplets can also be
regarded as a form of cloning. In this case, the fertilised egg immediately
spits into two (twins), three(triplets) , four (quadriplets) and so one. All the results eggs have
identical genetic material and will develop into identical twins or triplets
that we are so familiar with. So far, we have no problems with cloning in
nature.
Dolly
and Polly
In
February 1997, Ian Wilmut and his research team from Roslin Institute in
In
July the same year, Polly was created by the same nuclear transfer technology
in a farm in
Types
of Cloning
With
the available technology, it will not be long before someone will proceed to
clone human beings. Although there are stringent laws and guidelines in some
part of the world, it is inevitable that someone will try. On
Cloning human beings is an emotive issue. Many
people felt that ‘intuitively’ that is wrong but when pressed are unable to
offer a reasonable explanation. Many people are unable to differentiate the
fine line between science fiction and scientific facts. As Christians, we need
to be clear in our thinking, guided by a Christian worldview which is formed
the Scriptures and the empowering wisdom from the Holy Spirit. We cannot appeal
to tradition as a clone creature is a new creation, something that never
existed before in the world and we have no precedent in the Church to deal with
this.
Broadly,
there are three possible types of human cloning: ego cloning, reproductive
cloning and therapeutic cloning.
Many of us think of cloning as xeroxed people. We thinks of clones as exact replicates of ourselves. Hence ego cloning is when people, especially the rich, the famous or the powerful will think of producing a clone of themselves to take over and to continue what they have started. Unfortunately, that is a fallacy. The clone may be genetic identical to the original. However that is where the similarity ends. The clone will have different experiences and memories, different perceptions and different likes and dislikes. It will not be identical to the original. The clone is a person and a person is one is has the ability or the potential of independent thought, to interaction and be influenced by other people and their environments. Studies done of identical twins has shown that even though they shared the same genetic materials, they are individual persons; having the ability for independent thinking, being responsible for their actions and their relationship to God. Another question often raised is whether a clone person has a soul. Theologians has agreed that twins or triplets or other multiples have souls and they have all complete souls, not half soul or one third souls. Every person is an embodied soul, a complete soul. The argument can be extended to a clone, if one should ever exist (we are still dealing with the speculative). A clone with a complete genetic material of a human being should be human and a person, thereby should be accorded all the rights of a human being. Being a human being, he or she will bear the image of God and will ultimately be responsible to God.
The
other common perception of danger of ego
cloning is the making of a ‘master race’. With cloning and certain genetic
manipulation, if was speculated that we could identify the features that we
want in our clones for examples, blue eyes, blond hair and high intelligence.
The Human Genome , one of the greatest genetic project
in the Twentieh Century has studied the 24
chromosomes: 22 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes of a
human being. The project has, out of 3.1 billion base pairs in 1 chromosome set
(2 sets per genome), has decoded 50,000 to 100,000 genes, representing less
than 5% of total sequence of base pairs. Genes determining physical
characteristics like blue eyes or blond hair has been identified. But genes dealing with intelligence is more illusive. And it has
be discovered that genes interact with each other in ways we still do not
understand so changing a gene in one region will develop unexpected changes in
other areas. We are still a far way from the ego cloning of cerebrity
or creation of a master race of superhumans.
Reproductive cloning is
the introduction a cloned embryo into a woman’s womb leading to the birth of a
cloned baby. Once the technical problem of nurturing a cloned fertilised cell
beyond the 8 cells stage has been overcome, reproductive cloning may be a
reality in 10 years. There are a few reasons why people may opt for cloning of
themselves. Firstly, in infertile couples that has attempted
the various latest reproductive technologies and still fail to produce a
child. The couple may, as the last resort, ask to clone one of themselves. Secondly, one of the couple may have an
inherited untreatable genetic disease such as Huntington’s
Disease. Wanting a child, they may opt to clone the unaffected partner.
Thirdly, a family with a child needing a bone marrow transplant and unable to
find a compatible donor may elect to clone a child. The clone’s bone marrow is
definitely compatible. Bone marrow transplant is a safe procedure. Even today,
it is not unknown that parents produce another child to be a bone marrow donor
to a elder sibling with leukemia
or thalessemia that needed a bone marrow transplant.
On the negative side, single person or a gay/lesbian couple may want to clone
one of the partner. It must be emphaised
that in each of this scenerio, the clone is a child
that is wanted and love. It must also be recognised that the clone is a person.
Therapeutic Cloning is
that instead of cloning the whole person, the technique of nuclear transfer is
used to create certain tissue or organs to be used for the person himself or
herself. One has only to look at the long waiting list of people waiting for
kidney and heart transplantation to appreciate the problem. Aside form the lack
of donors, organ rejection is a major problems as the
bodies reject the transplanted organs and the recepient
have to take anti-graft rejection medication for life. Therapeutic cloning uses
the genetic materials from the patient’s own cells to generate pancreatic
islets to treat diabetes, nerve cells to repair damaged nerve cells, skins for
burns and even organs like kidney for replacement. The benefits form this type
of cloning is tremendous.
At this moment the technology is not
sophisticated enough for it. The research in this areas
deals with stem cells which are immature undifferenciated
cells and hence has a greater potential to grow into differentiated mature
cells and form tissues or organs.
Cloning
and Public Response
Most
public discussion do not distinguish between ego, reproductive or therapeutic
cloning. There seems to be a division between the public and the government on
one hand, and the scientific community on the other hand.
In
August 2000, President George Bush barred the use of federal funds for research
involving stem cells derived from embryo including those generated using
cloning. In the
Christian Concerns on Cloning
In
a discussion about the Christian concerns about cloning, we must be clear on
which issue wee are discussing. Otherwise, the discussion will become confused
and muddled.
Firstly,
what is the Christian view about a grown cloned human being (should any ever be
grown)? The Bible did not deal with cloning because it was not a technology
available at that time. The Bible does however deals a lot about personhood – a
thinking individual that is responsible for his or her action, including his or
her respond to the love of our Lord Jesus Christ. A clone, by having the full
genetic constituents of the origin human is a person. As we accord full
personhood to twins who have the same genetic constituents.
Another
argument that can be extend is that of ‘natural’ and what
is not, especially in this case.
Using some medical analogies, we
note that pain in childbirth is 'natural' but there is universal agreement that
we should use analgesia appropriately to treat it. Surgical operations are
'unnatural' but there is universal agreement that we should use them
appropriately to treat disease. Christians have a responsibility to be stewards
of the whole of God's creation, and it will therefore sometimes be right to do
'unnatural' things and it will sometimes be right to prevent things happening
'naturally'. The distinction as stated is therefore not at all helpful in this
debate.
Secondly,
we need to separate the issue of therapeutic cloning using stem cells and the
source of stem cells used in therapeutic cloning and research. Both are
different. If we are to ban therapeutic cloning because of sources of stem
cells, then we are throwing away the baby with the bathwater. Therapeutic
cloning is a good technology which will bring great medical advances to our
healthcare. The concerns of many Christian is where
the stem cells for these research and biotechology
comes from, and it is rightly so. Stem cells are obtained from blood from the
umbilical cord, from freshly aborted embryos, extra embryos from the IVF (In
vitro fertilisation) or cloned embryos. Christians generally have no problems
if the stem cells are obtained from cord blood or freshly aborted embryos.
The
problem concern the extra embryos which were produced in in-vitro fertilisation
and if nuclear transfer technique is used to produce a cloned embryo to be used
as a stem cell. The argument is that these embryos, if giving
the correct nurturing has the potential for developing into a human
being. However, it is be pointed that that even though
these embryos has the potential for developing into a human being, its capacity
is very limited. The time to create stem cells is at the blastocyte
stage where the embryo is nothing more than a cluster of cells (6-64). It
cannot think or feel and even less developed as an amoeba. This is where things
become confusing and we go back to the question of when do human life begins:
at the time of fertilisation of the ovum by the spermatozoa, at the formation
of organs or at the detection of brain activity of the fetus or at the first
breath of a newborn child (which is the Judeo-Rabbinic definition).
Christians
still have not come to a consensus of when human life begins. It is interesting
to note that in an article in the New Straits Times, Dr. Abu Bakar from the Institute of Islamic Understanding, Malaysia
wrote that according to the sayings of Prophet Muhammad, human life began at
the 120th day of conception which is about the time primitive
electrical brain activity can be detect from the fetus. Since we Christians do
not have a consensus when human life begins, we should error on the
conservative side and allow stem cells be created from
cord blood and aborted embryos but not extra embryos from IVF programs and specially
cloned cells.
Finally
we, as Christians should affirm the sanctity of human life because we are made
in the image of God. We should also affirm our stewardship of the created order
where we are called to be co-creator with God. We lived in a fallen world where
sin, suffering and diseases abound. It is part of our stewardship to overcome
sin, relieve suffering and cure disease whenever we can. Cloning may be one of
the instruments we can use.
Conclusion
In
this article we have examined various aspect of cloning of human beings and explored
some concerns Christian has concerning cloning. We have also examined which areas of cloning is acceptable to Judeo-Christian ethics and
which are problematic. This discussion is unique because our discussion is
based on a presupposition. The presupposition is that it is possible to clone a
human being. The discussion will be moot if we discover that for whatever
reason, it is not possible to clone a human being.
Gareth
Jones, Professor in the
1952 Briggs and King clone tadpoles
1953 Watson and Crick discover structure of DNA
1963 J.B.S. Haldane coins the term ‘clone’
1984 Steen Willardsen clones sheep from embryo cells.
1985 Steen Willardsen clones cattle from differentiated cells.
First, Prather and Eyestone clone a cow from embryo cells.
1990 Human Genome Project began.
1995 Wilmut and Campbell clone sheep from undifferentiated cells.
1996 Dolly, the first animal cloned from adult cells is born.
1997 Wilmut and Campbell created Polly, a cloned sheep with an inserted human
gene.
Richard Seed announced his plans to clone a human being.
1998 Teruhiko Wakayama creates 3 generations of genetically identical
cloned mice.
|1998|
